High Stakes Assessments in Early Childhood Education and Japanese Culture

High Stakes Assessments in Early Childhood Education and Japanese Culture

By Nick Martin

Kindergarten and early childhood education are all about providing emerging students with the tools to tackle structured educational systems, starting with first grade. Emphasis is placed on introducing children to the building blocks of what they will learn next year, and identifying problem areas that may cause future concern. However, high-stakes assessments are difficult to implement so early in the process. At the ages of 3-6, children are lacking any sort of foundation that can be critically assessed, and so most assessments end up being formative or geared toward preparing for future learning, rather than judging the culmination of a student’s experiences. However, once my students graduate from kindergarten and enter primary school, they will begin studying for the purpose of testing.

Teachers in Japan, at all grade levels, must meet stringent requirements to be formally certified in the education system. This involves holding a degree in higher education, passing the National Entrance Examination, training, clinical studies, and practicums. Teachers must retest between one and ten years (depending on subject and grade level) to maintain their certifications. While teachers are expected to teach material relevant to testing, “even if an individual student fails a course, they may pass with their class regardless of grades on tests. The grades on tests have no effect on schooling until taking entrance exams to get into high school.”

In terms of professional accountability, teachers are subject to the evaluation of their peers and their superiors. Japan has a strong group culture, and contributing to the overall welfare of a group or organization is seen as paramount. An example of accountability is ‘lesson study,’ where new and seasoned teachers “take turns presenting lessons that are practiced and critiqued in a group setting.” This system reinforces accountability in schools and the promotion of effective teaching strategies. In addition, this accountability is strengthened “through high levels of parental support and pressure for education, coupled with strong ministries of education and high professionalism among teachers.” My Japanese colleague tells me that this high professionalism manifests itself in the difficulty in securing a teaching certificate and the high rate of failure National Entrance Examination. On average, only 20% of applicants succeed.

Middle school/junior high school students (grades 7-9, called 1-3 in Japan) end up taking placement tests their final year to determine what high schools they can attend. In Japan, high school is “not compulsory and therefore requires the passing of an admission exam to enter.” Some students will forgo secondary education to enter a family trade, or apply to a technical school instead. Many students will end up studying or hiring a private tutor, called juku, to prepare for these tests to ensure they can enter the best schools. As a former teacher at a Japanese junior high school, I can attest that emphasis is put on ‘rote learning’ so students are able to pass tests for entrance into high school.

In the realm of secondary education, the Japanese Ministry of Education (MEXT) administers testing on an annual basis, with different levels for each grade: There are 5 periodical tests in a year (the midterm and the finals). There are some subjects which only require 1 test per term, some 2, others give no test at all, and some would base the student’s grade on daily classroom performance alone. To graduate, there are a fixed number of necessary subjects. Passing these subjects earns you units. Getting the necessary number of units enables you to graduate. In most high schools, after studying for one year, if a certain score (marks) is obtained in tests, etc it is considered that the required units for that subject have been achieved.

Finally, here are the requirements for a school in Oregon, my home state, and a school in Japan. There are nine state and local assessments from the Oregon Department of Education, administered at three levels between kindergarten and high school, grades 3, 8, and 11. In Japan, there is nothing like PSAT or SAT, and while students are tested in their classrooms by their own teachers on what they have learned, nationwide assessment has only become popular again in the last 10 years. The tests administered by MEXT are given twice in a student’s career: when they are in the sixth grade of elementary school and when they are third-year junior high school students. While it seems that Oregon has higher stakes for its testing and assessment procedures, Japan’s willingness to innovate in the area of education shows it also aims for the same goal, a competent metric by which to judge its students.

Ultimately, in Japan high-stakes testing is a process still under reform. While the current pool of teachers is considered to be highly skilled, well-paid, and educated, their effectiveness over years and generations is still not measurable in a meaningful way. While it is true that students are assessed, emphasis is placed on later years and entrance exams. As current trends shift MEXT from these assessments to all-encompassing educational assessments, information on effective testing procedures and results will become clearer. Let’s wait for that day to arrive.

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APA Citations

The Japanese School System/What is High School like? (n.d.). Retrieved October 14, 2016, from http://www.pref.osaka.lg.jp/jidoseitoshien/shugaku/g_english/shu_2_8.html

High school, university and graduate school | Tokyo International Communication Committee. (n.d.). Retrieved October 14, 2016, from https://www.tokyo-icc.jp/guide_eng/educ/03.html

NCEE » Japan: Teacher and Principal Quality. (n.d.). Retrieved October 14, 2016, from http://www.ncee.org/programs-affiliates/center-on-international-education-benchmarking/top-performing-countries/japan-overview/japan-teacher-and-principal-quality/

Williams, J. H., & Engel, L. C. (2012). How do other Countries Evaluate Teachers? Phi Delta Kappan, 94(4), 53-57. doi:10.1177/003172171209400414

ASSESSMENT - Student Testing in Oregon. (n.d.). Retrieved October 14, 2016, from http://www.ode.state.or.us/search/results/?id=169

A. (2008). Achievement tests in public schools: When, why & what for. Retrieved October 14, 2016, from https://educationinjapan.wordpress.com/education-system-in-japan-general/achievement-tests-in-public-schools-when-why-what-for/

“Creating Effective Classroom Rules and Procedures”

Blog Post: “Creating Effective Classroom Rules and Procedures”

In your career as an educator, you will come across a variety of students, each with their own unique character. Some of these students will be perfect angels, some of these students will be devilish rascals, and most of them will fall somewhere in between. As a result, one question many educators ask is ‘how do I manage my class?’

Rules and procedures are meant to give students purpose and direction in their daily classroom experience and interactions. These guidelines should be demonstrated to students early on, to avoid misunderstandings later. Having contingency plans for positive and negative behavior is essential, because neglecting one in favor of the other will result in a lopsided class where students are either compelled to act out at one extreme or another. Be flexible and be prepared, and you should be able to come up a succinct set of rules that students can comprehend and obey without too much trouble.

Positive Behavior

Positive behavior should be noticed and rewarded. In one example class, the foremost request of students is that their hard work be acknowledged (Marzano). There are many successful strategies for presenting your students with positive reinforcement beyond praise. One such example is a reward system. These rewards can be anything from points, to tokens, to stickers. Classdojo.com is a website that allows teachers to keep track of their students online, and assign points for completed tasks and skills.

Besides tangible rewards, positive behavior can be encouraged by granting students privileges they would not have without demonstrating an ability to follow the rules. Such privileges might include helping to prepare lunch for everyone, being the first student to line up for recess, or choosing the book to read during story time. Granting privileges for consistent and reliable good behavior shows students how to act to obtain those privileges. When given haphazardly without regard to merit, they suggest a lack of direction or focus. “The student who is most quiet may line up first” seems more fair and achievable to kids than “You can line up first because you’re the first kid I noticed.”

Praise is the simplest and most common type of positive reinforcement. Recognizing accomplishments through verbal acknowledgement shows students that their presence in class is valued, and that their efforts matter. One concern is that students who are often praised will become lazy or unmotivated. Marzano says “early studies demonstrated that if you reward people for things they are already doing by their own volition, then they will begin to decrease their intrinsic motivation.” But studies also show that praise can yield positive results. Whether it is correlation or causation, students praised for their effort tend to work harder and seek strong solutions (Dweck). Either way, students will respond well to praise.

Consequences

Inevitably, you will encounter students who break the rules in creative ways, and it is important to administer appropriate consequences gauged to the level of misbehavior. However, such situations can produce positive results if dealt with in a fashion that fosters growth, reflection, and correction. Robert Marzano of ‘The Art and Science of Teaching’ says that consequences don’t always need to be negative. You can turn a punishment or a warning into an experience that helps the student develop into a more socially aware member of the class (Marzano). In an example class, the students responded best to immediate action involving misbehavior, rather than delaying consequences.

Punishment and consequences don’t work when they are not doled out in equal measure. Disproportionate retribution shows that a teacher doesn’t have a handle on how they manage their class. When students see themselves punished while others committing the same offenses walk free, they will begin to develop a mindset where the class is unfair, and by that point punishments have lost meaning.

A better method for administering consequences for disruptive behavior is setting a uniform set of rules ahead of time, and defining the punishments for disobeying these rules once they have been established. You can alter degree of severity, or other factors, but showing your students that you are consistent is essential. Sending one kid to timeout and one kid back to play when they both kick each other during recess could make the child with the greater punishment resent you… or their classmate.

Personal Experiences: Positive Reinforcement

My own students are a diverse group of learners who each respond differently to rules and the consequences for breaking them. Until now, I have had an unwritten set of rules and procedures I use in the classroom to keep order. This involves a rewards system for good behavior, and a series of escalating punishments for bad behavior. See the flowchart for examples of how this system is implemented in my classroom.

Based on my personal experiences and the research I’ve done into positive reinforcement and behavior correction, I’ve found a style of behavior management that works for my students. As a class, whenever we enter a new situation, we review all of the rules associated with that situation in the beginning. Students are welcome to discuss the rules and ask questions. When students demonstrate their ability to follow those rules well, such as cleaning up their own messes and sharing with others, I will occasionally let them select stickers from the sticker box, or give them a treat to take home. Once, we all got temporary butterfly tattoos. In those cases, students didn’t know when rewards would be given, and therefore were encouraged to follow the rules at all times simply for the chance of possibly getting a prize.

However, pre-planned rewards systems are also effective. For example, when we had our first smoke and fire drill, the assistant teacher gave a two-day presentation on fire safety rules. After we reviewed the rules, students were told that they would receive stickers in the case of good behavior. Afterward, we participated in the exercise, and all students (there are only eight) received stickers. In another example, we were learning a new song and dance around ‘Who Took the Cookie from the Cookie Jar?’ Students were told that if they participated vigorously, they would receive real cookies to take home as snacks. Those students who wanted snacks performed with gusto, and their low-performing classmates joined in to imitate them.

The best rewards are given not out of a desire to placate, but for the purpose of reinforcing good behavior. In both cases, students were aware before the activity of what they needed to accomplish, and what reward they would gain if they followed the rules. The students used the procedures we covered to complete their tasks within the assigned guidelines, and saw their efforts were recognized with tangible prizes. They remain aware that, for future activities, there is a chance that good behavior will result in similar outcomes, and stay vigilant.

Personal Experiences: Misbehavior & Punishment

Of course, there have been times when I’ve had to deny students prizes, or punish them for disruptive behavior. These situations are often more difficult to handle, because they are often reactive situations where students have suddenly taken umbrage at something class-related. One student teases another, a student has an accident, or something bumps their head. When these situations result in classroom disruption, I am required to take action to diffuse them.

As seen on the flowchart, my reactions to students who misbehave differ depending on circumstance. Non-physical disturbances, such as yelling, playing around, and whispering in class are dealt with cooly, with verbal warnings and relocation if self-correction is nonviable. If the student cannot self-correct, or correct their actions with teacher intervention, then the next option is to remove them from the source of the bad behavior. For example, separating two friends who won’t stop chatting by placing them on opposite sides of the classroom.

From our class rules, students know violence is not tolerated in any way, nor is inappropriate touching. These acts result in stricter punishments, such as removal from class or parent conferences. When such an act is severe enough to grab the attention of all students, it is dealt with swiftly, at the cost of learning coming to a halt. Yet by acting decisively, students see that their teacher does not turn a blind eye to physical abuse. Other students reflect on receiving the same punishment for violence, while also safe in the knowledge that their teacher will come to their aid if they are a victim.

When my students do not clean up after themselves, they know that those toys they left out won’t be available to them for the rest of the day. Students know that if they hit, punch, push, or kick they will have to apologize to their classmates and go to timeout. They know if they try to talk over me during a lesson they will be relocated, first inside and then outside the classroom. This is because I have administered punitive measures like these over and over with consistency.

I had a pair of students who would argue over their favorite toy, and refuse to share. My initial attempts to mediate between them would last for a while, and then they would return to arguing. I then escalated the situation, removed the toys from their possession, and offered a choice: share the toy or have it removed from the learning area. The students came up with a successful strategy of taking turns with the toy, as opposed to losing all opportunity to play with it. This rule was incorporated into our classroom, and students now are given a verbal warning to share toys before they are removed for the remainder of the day. Aware of the penalty for non-compliance, most students will choose to either a) take turns or b) find a new activity to engage themselves.

Punishment cannot be the only step taken. Correction must be given to avoid recurring behavior. Whenever possible, I have a conversation with the misbehaving student about their actions and how they affect themselves and others. In language they can grasp, we discuss what they’ve done, why they’ve done it, and what they plan to do differently in the future. Sometimes, I will have the students involved complete an activity related to their offenses. Consequence in my classroom is never just to ignore the problem. I want my students to learn from their mistakes and change their behavior for the benefit of everyone in the class, teachers and students alike.

Conclusions

After several years of teaching, I have found some successful strategies for rewarding positive behavior, and for managing misbehavior. I will continue to utilize and improve the strategies I have mentioned in this article and on my flowchart. I use a variety of systems for managing and reinforcing positive behavior: rewards, privilege, and praise. Likewise, I use many problem-solving techniques to manage misbehavior and in-class disruptions. For positive reinforcement, fair and regular acknowledge of student achievement leads to a healthy and happy class culture, inspiring students to work well and take pride in their accomplishments. For discipline, I believe that escalation should be a gentle slope, not a sudden step, and that exhausting all possible options before moving to the extreme is better than doling out ultimatums and harsh punishments until they lose all meaning.

Although it may seem overwhelming, one of the best things you can do in these situations (positive and negative) is be consistent. Show them what they can expect from you, and your students will grow to trust in your judgement and authority. Give them the tools to follow your rules and surpass your expectations.

Rules & Procedures Flowchart

References

Marzano, R. J. (2007). The art and science of teaching: A comprehensive framework for effective instruction.

Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance.

CM Mueller, CS Dweck - Journal of personality and social psychology, 1998

Related: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NWv1VdDeoRY

Establishing a Positive Classroom Climate

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Establishing a Positive Classroom Climate

Maintaining a positive and supportive atmosphere in class is one of the most important things you can do, besides actually teaching. In my kindergarten class, I have Spanish and Japanese students, and they have little understanding of my own cultural background. Even so, I try to incorporate my own culture, and the culture of my students, into the classroom when possible.

‘Teaching Tolerance’ mentions that a child’s understanding of their own race and ethnicity are instrumental in teaching and how they learn (Common). I’ve never heard my students disparage each other’s ethnicity in any language, which makes me think they have been raised similarly enough to not recognize the differences in heritage. They were all born and raised in Japan, after all. On occasion, I will work aspects of each culture into classroom activities. For example, on Father’s Day we had Spanish students make their cards early, since that holiday in Spain is on March 19th. To avoid falling into stereotypes about cultures, we tend to stick to holidays, traditions, and crafts that children of all backgrounds can participate in.

I am an American, and that means I am able to relate to my students through pop culture. All of the children, raised in Japan, have been exposed to American media that has been translated overseas. They like Frozen and Lilo & Stitch, they like Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, and they like Spider-man. Although the kids may recognize these characters, they won’t make the connection that they are from America unless I explain it to them. Showing them cartoons in their original English language, or showing them cartoons from Japan dubbed in English, helps to show how our countries are connected, and encourages their curiosity toward other parts of the world.

One part of a positive classroom is equality. I’m talking about all students having the same opportunities and chances. Each student can participate, share, and play. For teachers, this means anti-bia teaching: there should be no favoritism, and students shouldn’t be ignored for not measuring up. Teaching Tolerance says this can be done through methods such as ‘supporting students’ identities and making it safe for them to fully be themselves,’ or ‘creating classroom environments that reflect diversity, equity and justice’ (Critical). At the start of last year, my co-teacher and I made sure to place racially and ethnically diverse photos, artwork, books, etc, around the classroom so students would see a greater variety of worldviews from a global perspective.

Another aspect of a positive classroom is safety. I mentioned this in my previous presentation, and in the anti-bullying case study, but students function better when they feel the classroom is a safe space. I mean free of persecution, of exclusion, and of danger. Practicing anti-bullying strategies place the students on an equal level where they all feel safe with each other, and that will contribute to a positive atmosphere for everyone. We participate in multiple safety and emergency drills annually, working with the community so the students are aware of what to do in the case of emergencies, and that they can count on us to take care of them. They know not to talk to strangers, and who they can turn to for help when they are in trouble.

In the future, I would like to expand the amount of content in my lessons relating to the racial and ethnic backgrounds of my students. Ideally, I’d cover one aspect of one culture everyday, but time constraints make this difficult. I plan to continue exploring options and will seek out an easier, more effective way of making this a reality. I hope that, by continuing to integrate the cultures of my students into the their daily lives, I can make them more aware of their own cultures and the impact their cultures have on their lives and the lives of others.

References

Teaching Tolerances, Common Beliefs (PDF):

https://docs.google.com/gview?url=http://www.tolerance.org/sites/default/files/general/common_beliefs_descriptions.pdf

Teaching Tolerance, Critical Practices for Anti-bias Education:

http://www.tolerance.org/seminar/critical-practices-anti-bias-education